Glossing Rules: Difference between revisions

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== Rules ==
== Core rules ==
=== Alignment ===
=== Alignment ===
; (1) Alignment Rule
; (1) Alignment Rule
: A word and its gloss need to be vertically arranged in a '''left-aligned''' way. <ref>''LGR'' (2008): rule 1.</ref>  
: An object language word and its gloss need to be ''' arranged vertically left-aligned'''. <ref>''LGR'' (2008): rule 1.</ref>  


'''Example:'''
; Example:
{|
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
|-
| style="border-right:medium solid" | ''Vorgestern'' || style="border-right:medium solid" | ''bin'' || style="border-right:medium solid" | ''ich'' || style="border-right:medium solid" | ''von'' || style="border-right:medium solid" | ''einem'' || style="border-right:medium solid" | ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''
| style="border-right:medium solid" | ''Vorgestern'' || style="border-right:medium solid" | ''bin'' || style="border-right:medium solid" | ''ich'' || style="border-right:medium solid" | ''aus'' || style="border-right:medium solid" | ''einem'' || style="border-right:medium solid" | ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
|-
| style="border-right:medium solid" | the.day.before.yesterday || style="border-right:medium solid" | am || style="border-right:medium solid" | I || style="border-right:medium solid" | from || style="border-right:medium solid" | a || style="border-right:medium solid" | short.vacation || back.come
| style="border-right:medium solid" | the.day.before.yesterday || style="border-right:medium solid" | am || style="border-right:medium solid" | I || style="border-right:medium solid" | out || style="border-right:medium solid" | a || style="border-right:medium solid" | short.vacation || back.come
|}
|}
‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’
{{Translation|‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’}}


But '''not'''
<small>
 
But '''not''':
<strike>
{| {{Wrong glossing table}}
''Vorgestern bin ich von einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.''<br/>
|-
the.day.before.yesterday am I from a short.vacation back.come<br/>
| ''Vorgestern bin ich von einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.''
</strike>
|-
| the.day.before.yesterday am I out a short.vacation back.come
|}
</small>


The best way to edit this in text editing programs is by the means of invisible tables, i.e. '''tables without border lines'''. (Whitespaces like blanks or tabs are not very helpful for this purpose.)
The best way to edit this in text editing programs is by the means of invisible tables, i.e. '''tables without border lines'''. (Whitespaces like blanks or tabs are not very helpful for this purpose.)


=== One-to-Many Correspondences ===
=== One-to-Many Correspondences ===
==== One object language word = many gloss elements ====
; (2a) Standard Joining Rule (for the gloss)
: Within a pair of an object language word and gloss, neither the word nor the gloss may contain any whitespaces (blanks, tabs).
: If one object language word corresponds to two or more elements in the gloss, these elements have to be joined by a punctuation mark.
:The standard punctuation mark for '''joining elements in the gloss''' is the '''period “.”'''. <ref>Cf. ''LGR'' (2008): rule 4.</ref>


==== One language word = many gloss elements ====
; Example:
Within a pair of word and gloss, neither the word nor the gloss may contain blanks.
{| {{Glossing table}}
; (2a) Standard Joining Rule
|-
: If one text word corresponds to two or more elements in the gloss, these elements have to be joined by a punctuation mark. The standard punctuation mark for '''joining elements in the gloss''' is the '''period “.”'''. <ref>Cf. ''LGR'' (2008): rule 4.</ref>
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
| th'''e.d'''a'''y.b'''efor'''e.y'''esterday || am || I || out || a || shor'''t.v'''acation || bac'''k.c'''ome
|}
{{Translation|‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’}}


'''Example:'''
<small>
{|
But '''not''':
{| {{Wrong glossing table}}
|-
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''von'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
|-
| the'''.'''day'''.'''before'''.'''yesterday || am || I || from || a || short'''.'''vacation || back'''.'''come
| th'''e d'''a'''y b'''efor'''e y'''esterday || am || I || out || a || shor'''t v'''acation || bac'''k c'''ome
|}
|}
‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’
</small>
 
; Standard exception to the Standard Joining Rule
: The sequence PERSON – NUMBER is usually spelled simply without a period “.”, i.e. [[Glossing Abbreviations|abbreviated]] as e.g. “3PL” (instead of “3'''.'''PL”). <ref>Cf. ''LGR'' (2008): rule 5.</ref>


But '''not'''
For another meaning of the period “.” in cases in which other punctuation marks like colons “:”, hyphens “-” or else are also used, see [[#The period in the expert mode|The Period in the Expert Mode section]] below.


<strike>
===== Compact translation phrases in the gloss =====
{|
; (2b) Compact phrase joining recommendation
: If one object language word corresponds to a compact '''multi-word phrase translation in the gloss''', these elements should rather be joined by an '''underscore “_”''' than by a period “.”. <ref>''LGR'' (2008): rule 4a.</ref>
 
; Example:
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''von'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
|-
| the day before yesterday || am || I || from || a || short vacation || back come
| th'''e_d'''a'''y_b'''efor'''e_y'''esterday || am || I || out || a.SG.M.DAT || short.vacation.M.SG.DAT || back.come.PTCP.PRF
|}
|}
</strike>


; Standard Exception
<small>
: The sequence PERSON–NUMBER is usually spelled without the period “.”, i.e. [[Glossing Abbreviations|abbreviated]] as e.g. “3PL” (instead of “3'''.'''PL”). <ref>Cf. ''LGR'' (2008): rule 5.</ref>
Rather than
{| {{Wrong glossing table}}
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
| th'''e.d'''a'''y.b'''efor'''e.y'''esterday || am || I || out || a.M.DAT || short.vacation.M.SG.DAT || back.come.PTCP.PRF
|}
</small>
 
; FAQ:
: ''What is the difference between the case of ''“vorgestern – th'''e_d'''a'''y_b'''efor'''e_y'''esterday”'' and ''“Kurzurlaub – shor'''t.v'''acation”''?'' 
: In the case of “Kurzurlaub – short.vacation”, the object language word “Kurzurlaub” actually contains the separate elements “short” (“kurz”) and “vacation” (“Urlaub”) – and only these elements. In the case of “vorgestern – the_day_before_yesterday – vorgestern”, on the other hand, the object language word “vorgestern” does not contain the elements “the”, “day”, “before”, and “yesterday” as four separate units. “The day before yesterday” is rather a fixed combined phrase.


For another meaning of the period “.” in cases in which other punctuation marks like the colon “:” and hyphen “-” are also used (‘expert mode’), see below.  
: ''But ''“vorgestern”'' does contain the elements ''“before”'' and ''“yesterday”''!'' 
: In the spirit of the Compact Phrase Joining Rule, one may therefore gloss “vorgestern” either as “befor'''e.y'''esterday” or “'''the_day_b'''efor'''e_y'''esterday”.


==== Many language words = one gloss element ====
==== Many object language words = one gloss element ====
; (2c) Joining Rule (other way around)
; (2c) Standard Joining Rule for object language words
: If two or more text words corresponds to one elements in the gloss, these elements have to be joined by a punctuation mark. The standard punctuation mark for '''joining language words''' that correspond to one single gloss is the '''underscore “_”'''. <ref>Cf. ''LGR'' (2008): rule 4.</ref>
: If two or more object language words corresponds to one elements in the gloss, these elements have to be joined by a punctuation mark. The standard punctuation mark for '''joining object language words''' that correspond to one single gloss is the '''underscore “_”''' (rather than the period “.”). <ref>Kutscher &amp; Werning (forthc.): xxv. This rule is not part of the ''LGR'' (2008); but cf. ''LGR'' (2008): rule 4.</ref>


'''Example:'''
; Example:
{|
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
|-
| ''I'' || ''came'' || ''back'' || ''from'' || ''a'' || ''short'' || ''vacation'' || ''the'''_'''day'''_'''before'''_'''yesterday''
| ''I'' || ''came'' || ''back'' || ''from'' || ''a'' || ''short'' || ''vacation'' || ''th'''e_d'''a'''y_b'''efor'''e_y'''esterday''
|-
|-
| ich || kam || zurück || von || ein || kurz || Urlaub || gestern
| ich || kam || zurück || von || ein || kurz || Urlaub || vorgestern
|}
|}
‘Vorgestern bin ich von einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.’
{{Translation|‘Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.’}}


But '''not'''
<small>
But '''not''':
{| {{Wrong glossing table}}
|-
| ''I'' || ''came'' || ''back'' || ''from'' || ''a'' || ''short'' || ''vacation'' || ''th'''e d'''a'''y b'''efor'''e y'''esterday''
|-
| ich || kam || zurück || von || ein || kurz || Urlaub || vorgestern
|}
</small>


<strike>
=== Analyzing grammatical categories ===
{|
; (3) Categories Markup Rule
: Grammatical categories marked on or inherent to the object language word may be analyzed in the gloss. These '''grammatical categories''' have to be typeset in '''small caps''' (small capital letters), or else – but less elegant – in normal capital letters.
: For the sake of space, frequent grammatical categories are usually abbreviated. <ref>Cf. ''LGR'' (2008): rule 3.</ref>
 
For common glossing abbreviations, see the [[Glossing Abbreviations|Glossing Abbreviations section]].
 
; Example:
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
| the_day_before_yesterday || be'''.PRS.1SG''' || '''1SG.NOM''' || out || '''ART.INDF.SG.M.DAT''' || short.vacation'''.M.SG.DAT''' || back.come'''.PTCP.PRF'''
|}
{{Translation|‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’}}
 
Alternatively, one might want to '''leave some elements unanalyzed''':
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
| the_day_before_yesterday || '''am''' || '''I''' || out || '''a'''.SG.M.DAT || short.vacation.M.SG.DAT || back.come.PTCP.PRF
|}
 
== Optional expert recommendations ==
=== Inflection markup recommendations ===
==== Affixes and clitics ====
; (4a) Affix markup recommendation
: If one object language word contains a clearly and neatly separable '''affix''' (suffix or prefix), this affix should be attached to its stem '''in both, in the transcription and in the gloss''', by a '''hyphen “-”''' (rather than by a period “.”). <ref>''LGR'' (2008): rule 2.</ref>
 
; (4b) Clitic morpheme markup recommendation
: If an object language morpheme attaches to another word as a '''clitic''' (enclitic or proclitic), this clitic should be attached to its base '''in both, in the transcription and in the gloss''', by an '''equal sign “=”''' (rather than by a hyphen “-”). <ref>''LGR'' (2008): rule 2.</ref>
 
; Example:
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
|-
| ''I'' || ''came'' || ''back'' || ''from'' || ''a'' || ''short'' || ''vacation'' || ''the day before yesterday''
| Vorgestern || bin || ich || aus || ei'''n-e'''m || Kur'''z=u'''rlaub || zurüc'''k=ge-k'''om'''m-e'''n.
|-
|-
| ich || kam || zurück || von || ein || kurz || Urlaub || gestern
| the_day_before_yesterday || be.PRS.1SG || 1SG.NOM || out || '''a-M'''.DAT || shor'''t=v'''acation.M.SG.DAT || bac'''k=P'''TCP.PR'''F-c'''om'''e-P'''TCP.PRF
|}
|}
</strike>
{{Translation|‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’}}


=== Analyzing grammatical categories ===
<small>
Rather than
{| {{Wrong glossing table}}
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
| the_day_before_yesterday || be.PRS.1SG || 1SG.NOM || out || '''a.M'''.DAT || shor'''t.v'''acation.M.SG.DAT || bac'''k.c'''om'''e.P'''TCP.PRF
|}
</small>
 
For ''“einem”'', cf. the following paradigm:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Gender, case !! Word !! Glossing transcription !! Gloss
|-
| M, NOM || ''ein'' || ein || ART.INDF.SG.M.NOM (''or rather'' ART.INDF.SG[M.NOM], ''see [[#Missing inflection|below]]'')
|-
| M, GEN || ''eines'' || ei'''n-e'''s || ART.INDF.S'''G-M'''.GEN
|-
| M, ACC ||  ''eine''' || ei'''n-e'''n || ART.INDF.S'''G-M'''.ACC
|-
| M, DAT ||  ''eine''' || ei'''n-e'''m || ART.INDF.S'''G-M'''.DAT
|-
| F, NOM || ''eine'' || ei'''n-e''' || ART.INDF.S'''G-F'''.NOM
|-
| ... || ... || ... || ...
|}
 
Note that e.g. ''“bin”'' cannot neatly be separated into different morphemes. Therefore, all its semantic elements are still ''fused'' by periods ‘.’ in the gloss. 
 
==== Circumfixes and other circum-morphemes ====
; (4c) Circum-morpheme markup recommendation
: If a split object language morpheme encircles another word from both sides as a '''circumfix''' or ‘circum-clitic’, or if two object language words encircle other words, we recommend to simply '''repeat the same gloss''' for both elements identically and mark both glosses with the '''same superscript index'''. <ref>Cf. ''LGR'' (2008): rule 8 (there without index) with some alternative suggestions.</ref>
 
; Examples:
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
| ''šipram'' || ''taštaprī''
|-
| šipr-am || '''ta-'''štapr'''-ī'''
|-
| writing(M)-ACC.SG || '''2SG.F<sub>1</sub>'''-write.PRF-'''2SG.F<sub>1</sub>'''
|}
{{Translation| ‘You have sent a letter.’}}
 
 
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
| Vorgestern || bin || ich || aus || ein-em || Kurz=urlaub || zurück='''ge-'''komm'''-en'''.
|-
| the_day_before_yesterday || be.PRS.1SG || 1SG.NOM || out || a-M.DAT || short=vacation.M.SG.DAT || back='''PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>-'''come'''-PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>'''
|}
{{Translation|‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’}}
 
 
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
| ''Je'' || '''''ne''''' || ''sais'' || '''''pas''''' || ''pourquoi''.
|-
| 1SG || '''NOT<sub>1</sub>''' || know.PRS.1SG || '''NOT<sub>1</sub>''' || why
|}
{{Translation|‘I don’t know why.’}}
 
==== Infixes ====
; (4d) Infix markup recommendation
: If one object language word contains a clearly and neatly separable '''infix''', this infix may optionally be marked '''in both, in the transcription and in the gloss''', by '''angle brackets “&lt;&nbsp;&gt;”''' (rather than by a period “.” or hyphens “-”). In the gloss, the brackets might either follow or precede the gloss of the element with the infix.<ref>''LGR'' (2008): rule 9.</ref>
 
; Example:
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
| ''šipram'' || ''taštaprī''
|-
| šipr-am || ta-š'''&lt;ta&gt;'''pr-ī
|-
| letter(M)-ACC.SG || 2SG.F<sub>1</sub>-write'''&lt;PRF&gt;'''-2SG.F<sub>1</sub>
|}
{{Translation|‘You have sent a letter.’}}
 
==== Reduplication phenomena ====
; (4e) Reduplication markup recommendation
: Categories that are expressed by a regular '''reduplication''' phenomenon in a paradigm may optionally be marked '''in both, in the transcription and in the gloss''', with a '''tilde “~”''' (rather than with a hyphen “-” or period “.”). <ref>''LGR'' (2008): rule 10.</ref>
 
Cf. the following Egyptian paradigm:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Number !! Word !! Glossing transliteration !! Gloss !! Translation
|-
| (unmarked) || ''jrt'' || jr-t || do.PTCP-F || ‘(she) who does/did’
|-
| DISTR || ''jrrt'' || jr'''~r'''-t || d'''o~P'''TCP.DISTR-F || ‘(she) who (repeatedly, ...) does/used to do’
|}
 
==== Correct sequential alignment rule ====
If affixes, clitics, reduplications and/or infixes are marked by “-”, “=”, “~”, and “&lt;&nbsp;&gt;”, respectively, it is mandatory to obey the following rule:
 
; Correct sequential alignment rule
: The number and sequence of hyphens “-”, equal signs “=”, tildes “~”, and angle brackets “&lt;&nbsp;&gt;” must always be exactly the same in the object language transliteration and the gloss.
 
Cf. for example:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Correct || <small>Wrong</small> || <small>Wrong</small> || Correct || <small>Wrong</small>
|-
| ''jrrtf'' || <small>''jrrtf''</small> || <small>''jrrtf''</small> || ''ambulabam'' || <small>''ambulabam''</small>
|-
| jr~r-t=f || <small>j'''rr'''-t=f</small> || <small>jr~'''r.t'''=f</small> || ambul'''a-ba-m''' ||
|-
| d'''o~D'''ISTR.RE'''L-F=3'''SG.M || <small>d'''o~D'''ISTR.REL-F=3SG.M</small> || <small>do~DISTR.RE'''L-F'''=3SG.M</small> || wal'''k-I'''PF'''V-1'''SG || <small>wal'''k-I'''PF'''V-1'''SG</small>
|-
| ‘what he used to do’ || || || ‘I walked’
|}
 
==== Missing inflection ====
; (5) Missing inflection markup recommendation
: If one can determine a grammatical category of a word only by the fact that '''a morpheme (ending, affix, infix, ...) is missing''', this category should be attached to the gloss in '''square brackets “[&nbsp;]”''' (rather than by a period “.” or else). <ref>''LGR'' (2008): rule 6.</ref>
 
Cf. the following paradigm:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Number, case !! Word !! Glossing transliteration !! Gloss
|-
| SG, NOM || ''Urlaub'' || Urlaub || vacation'''['''SG.NOM''']''' (''or'' vacation'''['''SG.NGEN''']''')
|-
| SG, GEN || ''Urlaubs'' || Urlau'''b-s''' || vacation-SG.GEN
|-
| SG, ACC || ''Urlaub'' || Urlaub || vacation'''['''SG.ACC''']''' (''or'' vacation'''['''SG.NGEN''']''')
|-
| SG, DAT || ''Urlaub'' || Urlaub || vacation'''['''SG.DAT''']''' (''or'' vacation'''['''SG.NGEN''']''')
|-
| PL, NOM || ''Urlaube'' || Urlau'''b-e''' || vacation-PL.NOM (''or'' vacation-PL.NOM;GEN)
|-
| PL, GEN || ''Urlaube'' || Urlau'''b-e''' || vacation-PL.GEN  (''or'' vacation-PL.NOM;GEN)
|-
| PL, ACC || ''Urlauben'' || Urlau'''b-e''' || vacation-PL.ACC  (''or'' vacation-PL.ACC;DAT)
|-
| PL, DAT ||''Urlauben'' || Urlau'''b-e''' || vacation-PL.DAT  (''or'' vacation-SG.ACC;DAT)
|}
 
; Example:
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
| Vorgestern || bin || ich || aus || ein-em || Kurz=urlau'''b''' || zurück=ge-komm-en.
|-
| the_day_before_yesterday || be.PRS.1SG || 1SG.NOM || out || a-M.DAT || short=vacation.'''M[S'''G.DA'''T]''' || back=PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>-come-PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>
|}
{{Translation|‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’}}
 
<small>
Rather than
{| {{Wrong glossing table}}
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
| Vorgestern || bin || ich || aus || ein-em || Kurz=urlaub || zurück=ge-komm-en.
|-
| the_day_before_yesterday || be.PRS.1SG || 1SG.NOM || out || a-M.DAT || short=vacation.'''M.S'''G.DA'''T''' || back=PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>-come-PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>
|}
</small>
 
Alternatively, one might want to explicitly mark the paradigmatic missing of a morpheme (ending, affix, infix, ...) in the transcription by the means of a '''‘zero-morpheme’ affix “-ø”'''. (Cf. the [[#Affix markup recommendation|Affix Markup Recommendation]] above.)
 
; Example:
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
| Vorgestern || bin || ich || aus || ein-em || Kurz=urlaub'''-ø''' || zurück=ge-komm-en.
|-
| the_day_before_yesterday || be.PRS.1SG || 1SG.NOM || out || a-M.DAT || short=vacation.'''M-S'''G.DAT || back=PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>-come-PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>
|}
{{Translation|‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’}}
 
==== Covert, inherent categories ====
; (6) Inherent categories markup recommendation
: Categories that are never expressed by a morpheme in a paradigm, i.e. categories that are rather inherent to a lexeme, may optionally be attached to the respective gloss in '''parentheses “(&nbsp;)”''' (rather than by a period “.” or square brackets “[&nbsp;]”). <ref>''LGR'' (2008): rule 7.</ref>


; (2a) Categories Markup Rule
; Example:
: Grammatical categories marked on or inherent to the word may be analyses in the gloss. These grammatical '''categories''' have to be typeset in '''small capital letters''' (or else in normal capital letters). For the sake of space, they are usually [[Glossing Abbreviations|abbreviated]]. <ref>Cf. ''LGR'' (2008): rule 3.</ref>
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
| Vorgestern || bin || ich || aus || ein-em || Kurz=urlaub || zurück=ge-komm-en.
|-
| the_day_before_yesterday || be.PRS.1SG || 1SG.NOM || out || a-M.DAT || short=vacatio'''n(M)'''[SG.DAT] || back=PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>-come-PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>
|}
{{Translation|‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’}}


'''Example:'''
<small>
{|
Rather than
{| {{Wrong glossing table}}
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
| Vorgestern || bin || ich || aus || ein-em || Kurz=urlaub || zurück=ge-komm-en.
|-
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''von'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''
| the_day_before_yesterday || be.PRS.1SG || 1SG.NOM || out || a-M.DAT || short=vacatio'''n.M'''[SG.DAT] || back=PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>-come-PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>
|}
</small>
 
Caution: This rule may eventually generate some difficult questions, like whether e.g. “ich” should be glossed as “1SG.NOM” or “1SG(NOM)”.
 
==== ''Ablaut'' phenomena ====
 
; (7) ''Ablaut'' markup recommendation
: Categories that are expressed by a regular '''''ablaut''''' phenomenon in a paradigm may optionally be attached to the gloss with a '''back slash “\”''' (rather than with a period “.” or colon “:”). <ref>''LGR'' (2008): rule 4d.</ref>
 
Cf. the following paradigm:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Number !! Word !! Gloss
|-
| SG || ''Vater'' || father(M).SG ''or better'' father(M)[SG]
|-
|-
| the.day.before.yesterday || be'''.PRS.1SG''' || '''1SG.NOM''' || from || '''ART.INDF.SG.M.DAT''' || short.vacation'''.M.SG.DAT''' || back.come'''.PTCP.PRF'''
| PL || ''V'''ä'''ter'' || father(M):PL  ''or better'' father(M)'''\PL'''
|}
 
==== Root-and-pattern morphology ====
In some languages, like many Afro-Asiatic languages, one can neatly separate (a) a word root and (b) a vowel pattern, although they are intertwined like two cogwheels.
 
; (8) Root-and-pattern morphology markup recommendation
: Categories that are expressed by a complex regular vocalic pattern applied to a (consonantal) root in a paradigm may either be marked as ''ablaut'' phenomenon (“\”; see [[#Ablaut phenomena|above]]) or – preferably – left unspecified (“:”, see [[#Leaving inflection type unspecified |below]]).
 
Cf. the following examples from Akkadian:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| ''šapārum'' || š'''a'''p'''ā'''r-um || writ'''e:I'''NF-NOM.SG || ‘(to) write; (to) send’
|-
| ''ašpur'' || a-šp'''u'''r || 1SG-writ'''e:P'''ST || ‘I sent’
|-
| ''ašappar''  || a-š'''a'''p'''pa'''r  || 1SG-writ'''e:I'''PFV || ‘I send, I will send’
|-
| ''aštapar'' || a-š'''&lt;ta&gt;'''p'''a'''r || 1SG-write'''&lt;PRF&gt;''' || ‘I have sent’
|-
| ''šiprum'' || š'''i'''pr-um  || '''writing(M)'''-NOM.SG || ‘message, writing; work’
|}
|}
‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’


Alternatively, one might want to leave some elements not analyzed:
=== Leaving inflection type unspecified ===
; (9) Unspecified inflection markup recommendation
: If one object language word corresponds to two or more elements in the gloss that '''can be distinguished between theoretically''', but the encoder is not able to or does not want to specify the type of inflection or the morpheme boundary, these elements may be joined (or rather separated) in the gloss by a '''colon “:”''' (rather than by a period “.”). <ref>''LGR'' (2008): rule 4c.</ref>
 
Consequently, the encoder may choose to use the colon “:” instead of any of the other indications of separable morphemes (“-”, “=”, “&lt;&nbsp;&rt;”, “~”, “\” – but not for [#Portmanteau morphemes|''Portmanteau'' morphemes]). Note that, differently to the cases of “-”, “=”, “&lt;&nbsp;&rt;”, and “~”, the colon “:” in the gloss is not supposed to match with a colon “:” in the Glossing transliteration line.
Note that a separate glossing transcription line is not necessary if the encoder uses only periods “.”, colons “:”, backslashes “\”, parentheses “(&nbsp;)”, and square brackets “[&nbsp;]”.
 
; Example:
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
| the_day_before_yesterday || be.PRS.1SG || 1SG.NOM || out || ART.INDF.S'''G:M'''.DAT || shor'''t:v'''acation.'''M:S'''G.DAT || bac'''k:c'''om'''e:P'''TCP.PRF
|}
{{Translation|‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’}}


{|
<small>
Rather than
{| {{Wrong glossing table}}
|-
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''von'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
|-
| the.day.before.yesterday || '''am''' || '''I''' || from || '''a'''.SG.M.DAT || short.vacation.M.SG.DAT || back.come.PTCP.PRF
| the_day_before_yesterday || be.PRS.1SG || 1SG.NOM || out || a-M.DAT || short=vacatio'''n(M)'''[SG.DAT] || back=PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>-come-PTCP.PRF<sub>1</sub>
|}
|}
</small>
=== The period in the expert mode ===
; (10) ''Portmanteau'' morpheme rule
: If one chooses to mark affixes, clitics, reduplications and/or infixes by “-”,“=”, “~”, and “&lt;&nbsp;&gt;”, respectively, or if one chooses to mark separable morpheme by a colon “:” (leaving the type of inflection unspecified), elements in a gloss should only be joined by a period “.”, if these are inseparably fused in the object language word (''Portmanteau'' morpheme).


<!-- to be continued soon -->
; Example:
{| {{Glossing table}}
|-
| ''Vorgestern'' || ''bin'' || ''ich'' || ''aus'' || ''einem'' || ''Kurzurlaub'' || ''zurückgekommen''.
|-
| Vorgestern || bin || ich || aus || ein-em || Kurz=urlaub || zurück=ge-komm-en.
|-
| the_day_before_yesterday || '''be.PRS.1SG''' || '''1SG.NOM''' || out || a-'''M.DAT''' || short=vacation(M)['''SG.DAT'''] || back='''PTCP.PRF'''<sub>1</sub>-come-'''PTCP.PRF'''<sub>1</sub>
|}
{{Translation|‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’}}


== References ==
<references/>
<references/>
== Bibliography ==
* Di Biase Dyson, Camilla, Frank Kammerzell &amp; Daniel A. Werning (2009). [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/%7Edwernin/published/DiBiase_Kammerzell_Werning-2009-Glossing_Ancient_Egyptian.pdf Glossing Ancient Egyptian. Suggestions for Adapting the Leipzig Glossing Rules]. In: ''Lingua Aegyptia. Journal of Egyptian Language Studies'' 17: 243–266.
* Kutscher, Silvia &amp; Daniel A. Werning (eds.) (forthc.). [http://www.degruyter.com/view/product/204910 ''On Ancient Grammars of Space: Linguistic Research on the Expression of Spatial Relations and Motion in Ancient Languages''], Topoi. Berlin Studies of the Ancient World, Berlin: de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3110311358.
* ''LGR'' (2008) = ''The Leipzig Glossing Rules: Conventions for Interlinear Morpheme-by-Morpheme Glosses'', ed. by the Department of Linguistics of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (Bernard Comrie, Martin Haspelmath) and by the Department of Linguistics of the University of Leipzig (Balthasar Bickel), http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/resources/glossing-rules.php, Leipzig, 12. Sept. 2008.

Revision as of 17:49, 25 July 2013

Core rules

Alignment

(1) Alignment Rule
An object language word and its gloss need to be arranged vertically left-aligned. [1]
Example
Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
the.day.before.yesterday am I out a short.vacation back.come
‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’
 

But not:

Vorgestern bin ich von einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
the.day.before.yesterday am I out a short.vacation back.come

The best way to edit this in text editing programs is by the means of invisible tables, i.e. tables without border lines. (Whitespaces like blanks or tabs are not very helpful for this purpose.)

One-to-Many Correspondences

One object language word = many gloss elements

(2a) Standard Joining Rule (for the gloss)
Within a pair of an object language word and gloss, neither the word nor the gloss may contain any whitespaces (blanks, tabs).
If one object language word corresponds to two or more elements in the gloss, these elements have to be joined by a punctuation mark.
The standard punctuation mark for joining elements in the gloss is the period “.”. [2]
Example
Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
the.day.before.yesterday am I out a short.vacation back.come
‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’
 

But not:

Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
the day before yesterday am I out a short vacation back come

Standard exception to the Standard Joining Rule
The sequence PERSON – NUMBER is usually spelled simply without a period “.”, i.e. abbreviated as e.g. “3PL” (instead of “3.PL”). [3]

For another meaning of the period “.” in cases in which other punctuation marks like colons “:”, hyphens “-” or else are also used, see The Period in the Expert Mode section below.

Compact translation phrases in the gloss
(2b) Compact phrase joining recommendation
If one object language word corresponds to a compact multi-word phrase translation in the gloss, these elements should rather be joined by an underscore “_” than by a period “.”. [4]
Example
Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
the_day_before_yesterday am I out a.SG.M.DAT short.vacation.M.SG.DAT back.come.PTCP.PRF

Rather than

Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
the.day.before.yesterday am I out a.M.DAT short.vacation.M.SG.DAT back.come.PTCP.PRF

FAQ
What is the difference between the case of “vorgestern – the_day_before_yesterday” and “Kurzurlaub – short.vacation”?
In the case of “Kurzurlaub – short.vacation”, the object language word “Kurzurlaub” actually contains the separate elements “short” (“kurz”) and “vacation” (“Urlaub”) – and only these elements. In the case of “vorgestern – the_day_before_yesterday – vorgestern”, on the other hand, the object language word “vorgestern” does not contain the elements “the”, “day”, “before”, and “yesterday” as four separate units. “The day before yesterday” is rather a fixed combined phrase.
But “vorgestern” does contain the elements “before” and “yesterday”!
In the spirit of the Compact Phrase Joining Rule, one may therefore gloss “vorgestern” either as “before.yesterday” or “the_day_before_yesterday”.

Many object language words = one gloss element

(2c) Standard Joining Rule for object language words
If two or more object language words corresponds to one elements in the gloss, these elements have to be joined by a punctuation mark. The standard punctuation mark for joining object language words that correspond to one single gloss is the underscore “_” (rather than the period “.”). [5]
Example
I came back from a short vacation the_day_before_yesterday
ich kam zurück von ein kurz Urlaub vorgestern
‘Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.’
 

But not:

I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday
ich kam zurück von ein kurz Urlaub vorgestern

Analyzing grammatical categories

(3) Categories Markup Rule
Grammatical categories marked on or inherent to the object language word may be analyzed in the gloss. These grammatical categories have to be typeset in small caps (small capital letters), or else – but less elegant – in normal capital letters.
For the sake of space, frequent grammatical categories are usually abbreviated. [6]

For common glossing abbreviations, see the Glossing Abbreviations section.

Example
Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
the_day_before_yesterday be.PRS.1SG 1SG.NOM out ART.INDF.SG.M.DAT short.vacation.M.SG.DAT back.come.PTCP.PRF
‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’
 

Alternatively, one might want to leave some elements unanalyzed:

Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
the_day_before_yesterday am I out a.SG.M.DAT short.vacation.M.SG.DAT back.come.PTCP.PRF

Optional expert recommendations

Inflection markup recommendations

Affixes and clitics

(4a) Affix markup recommendation
If one object language word contains a clearly and neatly separable affix (suffix or prefix), this affix should be attached to its stem in both, in the transcription and in the gloss, by a hyphen “-” (rather than by a period “.”). [7]
(4b) Clitic morpheme markup recommendation
If an object language morpheme attaches to another word as a clitic (enclitic or proclitic), this clitic should be attached to its base in both, in the transcription and in the gloss, by an equal sign “=” (rather than by a hyphen “-”). [8]
Example
Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
Vorgestern bin ich aus ein-em Kurz=urlaub zurück=ge-komm-en.
the_day_before_yesterday be.PRS.1SG 1SG.NOM out a-M.DAT short=vacation.M.SG.DAT back=PTCP.PRF-come-PTCP.PRF
‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’
 

Rather than

Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
the_day_before_yesterday be.PRS.1SG 1SG.NOM out a.M.DAT short.vacation.M.SG.DAT back.come.PTCP.PRF

For “einem”, cf. the following paradigm:

Gender, case Word Glossing transcription Gloss
M, NOM ein ein ART.INDF.SG.M.NOM (or rather ART.INDF.SG[M.NOM], see below)
M, GEN eines ein-es ART.INDF.SG-M.GEN
M, ACC eine' ein-en ART.INDF.SG-M.ACC
M, DAT eine' ein-em ART.INDF.SG-M.DAT
F, NOM eine ein-e ART.INDF.SG-F.NOM
... ... ... ...

Note that e.g. “bin” cannot neatly be separated into different morphemes. Therefore, all its semantic elements are still fused by periods ‘.’ in the gloss.

Circumfixes and other circum-morphemes

(4c) Circum-morpheme markup recommendation
If a split object language morpheme encircles another word from both sides as a circumfix or ‘circum-clitic’, or if two object language words encircle other words, we recommend to simply repeat the same gloss for both elements identically and mark both glosses with the same superscript index. [9]
Examples
šipram taštaprī
šipr-am ta-štapr-ī
writing(M)-ACC.SG 2SG.F1-write.PRF-2SG.F1
‘You have sent a letter.’
 


Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
Vorgestern bin ich aus ein-em Kurz=urlaub zurück=ge-komm-en.
the_day_before_yesterday be.PRS.1SG 1SG.NOM out a-M.DAT short=vacation.M.SG.DAT back=PTCP.PRF1-come-PTCP.PRF1
‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’
 


Je ne sais pas pourquoi.
1SG NOT1 know.PRS.1SG NOT1 why
‘I don’t know why.’
 

Infixes

(4d) Infix markup recommendation
If one object language word contains a clearly and neatly separable infix, this infix may optionally be marked in both, in the transcription and in the gloss, by angle brackets “< >” (rather than by a period “.” or hyphens “-”). In the gloss, the brackets might either follow or precede the gloss of the element with the infix.[10]
Example
šipram taštaprī
šipr-am ta-š<ta>pr-ī
letter(M)-ACC.SG 2SG.F1-write<PRF>-2SG.F1
‘You have sent a letter.’
 

Reduplication phenomena

(4e) Reduplication markup recommendation
Categories that are expressed by a regular reduplication phenomenon in a paradigm may optionally be marked in both, in the transcription and in the gloss, with a tilde “~” (rather than with a hyphen “-” or period “.”). [11]

Cf. the following Egyptian paradigm:

Verbal Number Word Glossing transliteration Gloss Translation
(unmarked) jrt jr-t do.PTCP-F ‘(she) who does/did’
DISTR jrrt jr~r-t do~PTCP.DISTR-F ‘(she) who (repeatedly, ...) does/used to do’

Correct sequential alignment rule

If affixes, clitics, reduplications and/or infixes are marked by “-”, “=”, “~”, and “< >”, respectively, it is mandatory to obey the following rule:

Correct sequential alignment rule
The number and sequence of hyphens “-”, equal signs “=”, tildes “~”, and angle brackets “< >” must always be exactly the same in the object language transliteration and the gloss.

Cf. for example:

Correct Wrong Wrong Correct Wrong
jrrtf jrrtf jrrtf ambulabam ambulabam
jr~r-t=f jrr-t=f jr~r.t=f ambula-ba-m
do~DISTR.REL-F=3SG.M do~DISTR.REL-F=3SG.M do~DISTR.REL-F=3SG.M walk-IPFV-1SG walk-IPFV-1SG
‘what he used to do’ ‘I walked’

Missing inflection

(5) Missing inflection markup recommendation
If one can determine a grammatical category of a word only by the fact that a morpheme (ending, affix, infix, ...) is missing, this category should be attached to the gloss in square brackets “[ ]” (rather than by a period “.” or else). [12]

Cf. the following paradigm:

Number, case Word Glossing transliteration Gloss
SG, NOM Urlaub Urlaub vacation[SG.NOM] (or vacation[SG.NGEN])
SG, GEN Urlaubs Urlaub-s vacation-SG.GEN
SG, ACC Urlaub Urlaub vacation[SG.ACC] (or vacation[SG.NGEN])
SG, DAT Urlaub Urlaub vacation[SG.DAT] (or vacation[SG.NGEN])
PL, NOM Urlaube Urlaub-e vacation-PL.NOM (or vacation-PL.NOM;GEN)
PL, GEN Urlaube Urlaub-e vacation-PL.GEN (or vacation-PL.NOM;GEN)
PL, ACC Urlauben Urlaub-e vacation-PL.ACC (or vacation-PL.ACC;DAT)
PL, DAT Urlauben Urlaub-e vacation-PL.DAT (or vacation-SG.ACC;DAT)
Example
Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
Vorgestern bin ich aus ein-em Kurz=urlaub zurück=ge-komm-en.
the_day_before_yesterday be.PRS.1SG 1SG.NOM out a-M.DAT short=vacation.M[SG.DAT] back=PTCP.PRF1-come-PTCP.PRF1
‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’
 

Rather than

Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
Vorgestern bin ich aus ein-em Kurz=urlaub zurück=ge-komm-en.
the_day_before_yesterday be.PRS.1SG 1SG.NOM out a-M.DAT short=vacation.M.SG.DAT back=PTCP.PRF1-come-PTCP.PRF1

Alternatively, one might want to explicitly mark the paradigmatic missing of a morpheme (ending, affix, infix, ...) in the transcription by the means of a ‘zero-morpheme’ affix “-ø”. (Cf. the Affix Markup Recommendation above.)

Example
Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
Vorgestern bin ich aus ein-em Kurz=urlaub-ø zurück=ge-komm-en.
the_day_before_yesterday be.PRS.1SG 1SG.NOM out a-M.DAT short=vacation.M-SG.DAT back=PTCP.PRF1-come-PTCP.PRF1
‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’
 

Covert, inherent categories

(6) Inherent categories markup recommendation
Categories that are never expressed by a morpheme in a paradigm, i.e. categories that are rather inherent to a lexeme, may optionally be attached to the respective gloss in parentheses “( )” (rather than by a period “.” or square brackets “[ ]”). [13]
Example
Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
Vorgestern bin ich aus ein-em Kurz=urlaub zurück=ge-komm-en.
the_day_before_yesterday be.PRS.1SG 1SG.NOM out a-M.DAT short=vacation(M)[SG.DAT] back=PTCP.PRF1-come-PTCP.PRF1
‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’
 

Rather than

Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
Vorgestern bin ich aus ein-em Kurz=urlaub zurück=ge-komm-en.
the_day_before_yesterday be.PRS.1SG 1SG.NOM out a-M.DAT short=vacation.M[SG.DAT] back=PTCP.PRF1-come-PTCP.PRF1

Caution: This rule may eventually generate some difficult questions, like whether e.g. “ich” should be glossed as “1SG.NOM” or “1SG(NOM)”.

Ablaut phenomena

(7) Ablaut markup recommendation
Categories that are expressed by a regular ablaut phenomenon in a paradigm may optionally be attached to the gloss with a back slash “\” (rather than with a period “.” or colon “:”). [14]

Cf. the following paradigm:

Number Word Gloss
SG Vater father(M).SG or better father(M)[SG]
PL Väter father(M):PL or better father(M)\PL

Root-and-pattern morphology

In some languages, like many Afro-Asiatic languages, one can neatly separate (a) a word root and (b) a vowel pattern, although they are intertwined like two cogwheels.

(8) Root-and-pattern morphology markup recommendation
Categories that are expressed by a complex regular vocalic pattern applied to a (consonantal) root in a paradigm may either be marked as ablaut phenomenon (“\”; see above) or – preferably – left unspecified (“:”, see below).

Cf. the following examples from Akkadian:

šapārum šapār-um write:INF-NOM.SG ‘(to) write; (to) send’
ašpur a-špur 1SG-write:PST ‘I sent’
ašappar a-šappar 1SG-write:IPFV ‘I send, I will send’
aštapar a-š<ta>par 1SG-write<PRF> ‘I have sent’
šiprum šipr-um writing(M)-NOM.SG ‘message, writing; work’

Leaving inflection type unspecified

(9) Unspecified inflection markup recommendation
If one object language word corresponds to two or more elements in the gloss that can be distinguished between theoretically, but the encoder is not able to or does not want to specify the type of inflection or the morpheme boundary, these elements may be joined (or rather separated) in the gloss by a colon “:” (rather than by a period “.”). [15]

Consequently, the encoder may choose to use the colon “:” instead of any of the other indications of separable morphemes (“-”, “=”, “< &rt;”, “~”, “\” – but not for [#Portmanteau morphemes|Portmanteau morphemes]). Note that, differently to the cases of “-”, “=”, “< &rt;”, and “~”, the colon “:” in the gloss is not supposed to match with a colon “:” in the Glossing transliteration line. Note that a separate glossing transcription line is not necessary if the encoder uses only periods “.”, colons “:”, backslashes “\”, parentheses “( )”, and square brackets “[ ]”.

Example
Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
the_day_before_yesterday be.PRS.1SG 1SG.NOM out ART.INDF.SG:M.DAT short:vacation.M:SG.DAT back:come:PTCP.PRF
‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’
 

Rather than

Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
the_day_before_yesterday be.PRS.1SG 1SG.NOM out a-M.DAT short=vacation(M)[SG.DAT] back=PTCP.PRF1-come-PTCP.PRF1

The period in the expert mode

(10) Portmanteau morpheme rule
If one chooses to mark affixes, clitics, reduplications and/or infixes by “-”,“=”, “~”, and “< >”, respectively, or if one chooses to mark separable morpheme by a colon “:” (leaving the type of inflection unspecified), elements in a gloss should only be joined by a period “.”, if these are inseparably fused in the object language word (Portmanteau morpheme).
Example
Vorgestern bin ich aus einem Kurzurlaub zurückgekommen.
Vorgestern bin ich aus ein-em Kurz=urlaub zurück=ge-komm-en.
the_day_before_yesterday be.PRS.1SG 1SG.NOM out a-M.DAT short=vacation(M)[SG.DAT] back=PTCP.PRF1-come-PTCP.PRF1
‘I came back from a short vacation the day before yesterday.’
 

References

  1. ↑ LGR (2008): rule 1.
  2. ↑ Cf. LGR (2008): rule 4.
  3. ↑ Cf. LGR (2008): rule 5.
  4. ↑ LGR (2008): rule 4a.
  5. ↑ Kutscher & Werning (forthc.): xxv. This rule is not part of the LGR (2008); but cf. LGR (2008): rule 4.
  6. ↑ Cf. LGR (2008): rule 3.
  7. ↑ LGR (2008): rule 2.
  8. ↑ LGR (2008): rule 2.
  9. ↑ Cf. LGR (2008): rule 8 (there without index) with some alternative suggestions.
  10. ↑ LGR (2008): rule 9.
  11. ↑ LGR (2008): rule 10.
  12. ↑ LGR (2008): rule 6.
  13. ↑ LGR (2008): rule 7.
  14. ↑ LGR (2008): rule 4d.
  15. ↑ LGR (2008): rule 4c.

Bibliography

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